Observation 2.3

Week of Dec 1 - Dec 7 (1.5h)
Most of this week was cloudy and I was unable to view many of the constellations. I was able to however spot Venus at, or near its brightest. Venus was supposed to reach its greatest luminosity in the evening sky on December 6. I saw it near the horizon, below a crescent moon. By this time in January, Venus will not be as visible as it is entering its inferior conjunction, so I am planning to admire its beauty and brightness for as long as I can.

APOD 2.7

The image below captures the gamma radiation emitted from Earth from the perspective of the Fermi Gamma Ray Space Telescope. Gamma rays are the most energetic type of electromagnetic radiation. They have the smallest wavelength. On Earth, gamma rays can be generated through nuclear explosions, lightening, and radioactive decay. This image is a compilation of images taken by Fermi showing the gamma radiation that Earth emits. These gamma rays are generated when high energy particles such as cosmic rays from space crash into the atmosphere. Fortunately for life on Earth, the atmosphere blocks out the gamma rays by absorbing them and re-emitting them into space. Using the Large Area Telescope (LAT) and the GLAST Burst Monitor (GBM), the Fermi Gamma Ray Space Telescope distinguishes between high energy cosmic rays and gammy rays, measures the gamma radiation, and pinpoints the radiation's location of origin with high accuracy all within a fraction of a second during which these bursts of gamma radiation occur. The low intensity gamma rays are denoted using the color blue while the higher intensity gamma rays are denoted using the color yellow.

APOD 2.6

The image below shows Comet ISON before and after perihelion, it's closest approach to the sun. These images were taken by the LASCO instrument on the SOHO, the solar and heliospheric observatory. Using ultraviolet radiation, the coronographs that make up LASCO capture the sun and it's atmosphere as well as comet ISON's path. The sun and the bright light that it emits is blocked out by LASCO's central occulting disk. The white circle shows the Sun's actual position and scale. Many astronomers and avid viewers hoped that comet ISON would survive it's journey past the sun's perihelion. However, the images below show the faint remnants of the comet as it exits perihelion. The streak across the image may represent the remaining dust trail of comet ISON.

Observation 2.2

Week of Nov 17 - Nov 23 (1.5h)
The full moon rose up early in the evening Sunday and I was able to closely observe its surface features. As it was close to the horizon, it appeared much larger than it did later that evening. Later in the evening I was able to make out most of Pegasus and other constellations. I tried to spot Ursa Minor as well as Cepheus, however it was too light and my view was obstructed by some trees on the horizon.

APOD 2.5

The image below is an illustration of a black hole with the purpose of creating a visual representation of black hole jets. Black holes are areas of small radii of extremely high concentrations of mass. The strong gravitational pull created by the concentrated mass in the small volume of space pulls in plasma and gas from surrounding stars and celestial objects. This gas and plasma creates flat disks that revolve around the black hole. As the space material approaches the black hole it may encounter the ergosphere, an egg-shaped region of distorted space around the center of the black hole. There, the space material is ejected through these jets when it gains energy from the rotating motion of the core of the spinning black hole. If the material reaches the event horizon, however, it is sucked into the opening of the black hole. These powerful jets are the universe's recycling method. They contain electrons as well as heavy atoms such as iron and nickel. When shot away from the center of the black hole at two-thirds the speed of light, black hole jets have the potential to dictate when and how new nearby galaxies form.

APOD 2.4

The image below shows two views of the Comet ISON as it nears its potential end with its close encounter with the sun. As a result of Comet ISON's recent outburst, it is clearly visible to the naked eye, falling through Earth's predawn skies. As the comet approaches the Sun, it will no longer be visible to the naked eye until it turns around the sun. Once it finishes its turn around, it will make its closest approach to Earth in late December and Early January. A notable development in Comet ISON is the evolution of a more complex tail. The comet has developed "coma wings" which suggests that the comet have begun the process of fragmentation among other things. These wings are not visible to the naked eye and despite close observation of the comet, it is still uncertain whether it has fragmented. Astronomers predict that following the comet's outburst, Comet ISON should become brighter and brighter in the sky assuming it is not broken up.

APOD 2.3

The image below compares planet Earth with an exoplanet- Kepler 78b. Kepler orbits a star about 400 light-years away from Earth, found in the constellation of Cygnus. This planet is most similar to Earth with regard to its size and density. Compared to Earth's mass, Kepler is only 20% larger and Kepler's planet density is most similar to Earth's than any other known planet's. However, many astronomers argue that this planet should not even exist. The entire planet consists of molten lava, however the most unbelievable characteristic of the planet is its distance from the sun. In accordance with the current theories of planet formation, Kepler could not have formed so close to the star it orbits, nor could it have moved to its current radius of orbit. This radius is forty times less than the radius of Mercury's orbit, the planet closest to our sun. Unfortunately for this planet, its star's gravitational force will keep pulling the planet closer and closer until it is eventually enveloped by the star.

APOD 2.2

The image below is a close-up of the Eastern Veil Nebula,the remnant of a supernova. It is located in the night sky towards the constellation Cygnus, giving the nebula it's second name, the Cygnus Loop. The entirety of the nebula extends to 3 degrees in the night sky which is the equivalent of 6 times the diameter of the Moon or an actual 70 light years across.The gas and debris that resulted from the supernova are still expanding in the form of a large cloud. The light from this supernova, located an astounding 1500 light-years from Earth, first reached our planet approximately five thousand years ago. The massive size of the nebula has led astronomers to identify parts of it as completely separate nebulae (i.e. Witch's Broom and Pickering's Triangle). This image was created using a compilation of image data collected through narrow band filters. The red color denotes emission from hydrogen atoms while the blue-green colors denote the strong emission from oxygen atoms.

Observation 2.1

Week of Oct 27- Nov 2 (3h)
This week at the stargaze, the sky was clear with a few scattered clouds. The moon was a waning crescent and did not hinder our view of the stars and celestial objects (sky of magnitude of 5). With the aid of telescopes and binoculars we were able to observe various M objects in the fall night sky. The stars that compose the Summer triangle as well as the Great Square of Pegasus were clearly visible. I observed M31 and M13 through binoculars. We were also able to observe M57, M27, and M11 through a telescope. Near the end of the stargaze we observed the ISS passing through our field of view.

APOD 2.1

The image below is a top view of Saturn. The significance of the images lies in the capture of Saturn's night side- it would be impossible for this image to be captured by an Earth-based observer because Earth is much closer to than Sun than it is to Saturn. This means that Earth observers can only see the day side of Saturn and its rings. Cassini was able to capture yet another image of Saturn. Cassini took thirty-six separate image of the same view each with varying filters (red, green, and blue). This one, however, stands out above the rest. For the first time, astronomers have been able to see the gap between Saturn and its rings. So far, the separation between Saturn and its rings has not been visible, but thanks to this mosaic put together by Gordan Ugarkovic we can see not only that, but a lot more. This image also reveals Saturn's polar hexagon, a rotating cloud pattern at Saturn's North Pole with six sides of equal length.

APOD 1.8

     The image below captures the beauty of the Great Carina Nebula discovered in 1752 by Nicholas Louis de Lacaille. The Carina Nebula, also known as NGC 3372, is the creator of the one of the most conspicuous, massive, and luminous stars in our Milky Way Galaxy, Eta Carinae. Eta Carinae has a mass about 120 times that of our own Sun. Because of its age and large size, Eta Carinae is expected to explode into supernova or hypernova in the astronmically near future. 

     Although this nebula is an outstanding 7,500 light-years away from Earth, it can still be easily distinguished in the night sky with the naked eye. This image taken by Lorand Fenyes captures the beauty of the interstellar and cosmic dust that make up the nebula. The interstellar dust is made up of particles of carbon, ice, and iron compounds and scatters blue light. This scattering gives the nebula its red color. The clouds that surround the nebula are thick knots of molecular gas and dust that are opaque, but are still less dense than the clouds in Earth's atmosphere.

APOD 1.7

Pictured below is Comet ISON's transit across our sky two weeks ago. Comet ISON was discovered in September 2012 by Vitali Nevski and Artyom Novichonok. This comet will be entering the inner solar system following its hyperbolic trajectory from the Oort Cloud, a spherical cloud of icy cosmic dust grains in the midst of planet formation (planetisimals). The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter captured the image below as Comet ISON made its closest approach to the planet. The comet itself isn't as bright as astronomers had previously predicted however the low brightness of the tail allows astronomers to observe the nucleus of the comet for more accurate research. As the comet approaches Earth, within the next week, it has the potential to become just as bright or even brighter than the moon, becoming the brightest object in the night sky. The comet will continue its approach into the inner solar system and ultimately pass within a few solar radii of the Sun's surface. If Comet ISON survives the trip near the sun (it reaches perihelion on November 29th) it will pass by the Earth at the nearest point some time in December 2013.

Christen Sørensen Longomontanus

Christen Sørensen (born as Christian Severin; also known as Longomontanus) was born in Longberg, Denmark in 1562. Born in to a poor family, Sørensen did not complete his education until the age of twenty-six. In 1590, Sørensen began working at Tycho Brahe's observatory, Uraniborg, as his primary assistant. Working for Brahe allowed Sørensen some close insight of Brahe's advanced astronomical research and observations. However, the two worked so closely that it is difficult to distinguish specifically how and what Sørensen contributed to Brahe's work. Some sources attribute the development of Tycho's Lunar Theory to Sørensen as he was the one who surpervised the compilation of Brahe's star catalog. Upon Tycho's death and in Sørensen's absence, Johannes Kepler , another assistant to Brahe, took it upon himself to continue Brahe's research using his own methods. Sørensen attempted to dissuade Kepler of his methods and ultimately never accepted Kepler's findings and research.

Sørensen managed to carry on Tycho Brahe's legacy without the key component of his observations and star charts (in Kepler's possession at the time). Sørensen is acknowledged for writing a testimonial for Brahe's work: Astronomica Danica (published in 1622). In this testament, Sørensen detailed the various geocentric (Ptolemaic and Tychonic) and heliocentric (Copernican) models while finally expressing his support for the Tychonic system, a combination of the planetary motions of the Copernican model and the geocentrism of the Ptolemaic model.

In 1597 Uraniborg was forced to shut down and Sørensen was left to pursue his education independently. At first he was able to continue working for Tycho Brahe (during which time the Lunar theory was established), but after Brahe's death in 1601, Sørensen began touring German universities and soon found his niche at the University of Copenhagen. In 1605, Chancellor Christian Friis of the University of Copenhagen sponsored Sørensen and he became a well known professor. By 1621, Sørensen transitioned from a professor of mathematics to a professor of astronomy and higher mathematics. Sørensen has left his legacy at the University of Copenhagen by establishing a tradition of astronomical education and drafting the Round Tower observatory; he was unable to see its completion before his death on October 8th, 1647.

Christen Sørensen is an often overlooked figure in the astronomical world. Although his contributions to the development of theories of planetary motion in the 17th century were extremely valuable, he is often hidden behind the shadow of Tycho Brahe and other great astronomers of the time period. 

APOD 1.6

The image below shows the remnants of the explosion of a star in the constellation Vera, part of a group of constellations called Argo. The explosion of the star is thought to have been seen by the earliest humans in recorded history, but its aftermath is still visible today. When the star first exploded, the outer layers of the destroyed star pushed into the interstellar medium surrounding the star. This interstellar medium consists of large clouds of mostly hydrogen that are usually hard to detect as they emit very little light and absorb few, very specific wavelengths of light. The clashing of the outer layer of the star and the interstellar cloud created a spherical shock wave that is observable with x-rays. The image below shows the filaments of the shock wave, which are colored as the escaping gas decays and reacts with the interstellar medium. Sitting at the center of the explosion is a pulsar, a dense, highly-magnetized, rotating neutron star. This particular neutron star rotates completely ten times within one second.

APOD 1.5

In the image below, two M objects (M31 and M33), both spiral galaxies, are being compared within the same telescopic shot. This is a very difficult image to take because of the large field of view required to capture both galaxies. These two galaxies are 14 degrees apart in the night sky and are part of the Local Group, the same group of galaxies to which our Milky Way belongs. The Andromeda Galaxy (M31) and the Triangulum Galaxy (M33; also known as the Pinwheel Galaxy) are two of the three largest galaxies in the Local Group (the Milky Way being the third) among several dozen dwarf galaxies. The Andromeda Galaxy is 2.5 million light-years away while the Triangulum Galaxy is 3 million light-years away, however despite their large distance apart, both galaxies are locked in gravitational orbit around each other. Astronomers have made predictions that some billions of years in the future, the three largest galaxies of the Local Group (The Milky Way, M33, M31) will undergo close encounters with each other which may signal a merging. The bright spot in the center of the image is the bright star, Mirach found in the Milky Way in the constellation Andromeda. Mirach is a red giant star, a cooler, but larger version of our Sun.



Christen Sørensen Longomontanus Sources

Applebaum, Wilbur. "Severin, Christian (Christen Sorenson; Longomontanus or Langberg)."Encyclopedia of the Scientific Revolution: From Copernicus to Newton. N.p.: Garland Science, 2000. N. pag. Print.

"Christian Longomontanus (Danish Astronomer)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia       Britannica, n.d. Web. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/347617/Christian-Longomontanus.

APOD 1.4

The image below is a processed image of the planetary nebula M2-9, located an astounding 2,100 light years away from Earth. This shows the end of a low-mass star and its transition into a white dwarf star. During this point in its lifetime, the star is labeled as a planetary nebula; however, much is left unknown as to the processes of that cause this transition. Once the star's core ceases to undergo nuclear fusion, the outer layer of the star expands and quickly loses mass as the gases are swept away by stellar winds. However, before the outer gaseous layers are completely gone, they form the signature wings of a butterfly nebula (pictured below). This future white dwarf star, like other white dwarf stars, will eventually fade away over the course of thousands of years. Inside this planetary nebula, there is a pair of binary stars orbiting around each other on a gas disk.

APOD 1.3

The image below, taken in San Antonia de Areco, Argentina, shows cosmic cloud dust over the constellation Corona Australis. The clouds of dust span an estimated 15 light-years and may even be a nebula in the midst of creating a new star. There are certain features within the clouds that denote star formation, one of which is the appearance of Herbig-Haro objects. Herbig-Haro objects can be described as compact nebulae and are the first visible signs of star formation. They are ejected in pairs moving in opposite directions from proto-stars near the conclusion of the star formation. The Herbig-Haro objects can be seen in the image below as two red patches equidistant from the small, yellow curlicue.  The blue color is produced as the clouds of dust particles scatter the shorter wavelengths of the visible starlight.

APOD 1.2

The image below, taken with the Hubble Space Telescope, shows a caterpillar-shaped protostar in its early stages of star formation. The blue cloud (with a length of approximately one light-year) represents a collection of gas from which the star builds itself. For this particular protostar (IRAS 20324), however, the cloud of gas is being eroded by radiation from nearby Cygnus OB2 association, a collection of the hottest, brightest known stars, and energentic winds composed of a fast moving flow of protons, electrons, and atoms of heavier metals. The future of this star is unknown to astronomers at the moment as its formation to a star my be cut short by the erosion. If it collects enough mass, this protostar has the potential of becoming a massive star (one to ten times larger than the sun) and turning into a planetary nebula.

Observation Log 1

Date: September 1, 2013

Time:  9:00 - 10:00 PM

Place:  Clearwater Beach

Sky Conditions: Clear Sky, Limited visibility to the East/SE/SSE because of city lights

Instruments Used: None

Planets: -

Bright Stars noted: Anteres, Polaris

Constellations noted: Scorpius, Sagittarius

                                Corona Australis was not visible due to the city lights.

Binary Stars: -

Deep Sky Objects: -

Other: International Space Station moved across the south sky from West to East around 9:33 PM

Although I observed the sky near the city, I was still able to distinguish some constellations. Being able to catch the International Space Station's movements across the sky at just the right moment was more than exciting.

APOD 1.1

The image below is a color-enhanced image of the Crab Nebula. The earliest records of this nebula date back to the eleventh century AD when the ancient Chinese astronomers and the Pueblo people of New Mexico and Arizona (the Anasazi) recorded their observations of the night sky. The Crab Nebula was created by a supernova of a single, massive star; this supernova was so powerful that it lit up the sky in daylight for 23 days and 653 days to the naked eye in the night sky. When a star can no longer undergo fusion because of the lack of elements in the core (only iron is left), the star begins to swell while the core yields to the gravitational force because of the lack of thermal pressure and begins to shrink. The total gravitational collapse of the star lasts less than a second. During this time period, the iron atoms in the hot, dense core are crushed together. At first the force of gravity overcomes the repulsive force between the iron nuclei and the core compresses, however, shortly thereafter it recoils. The recoil results in a shock wave that moves explosively through space. As the shock wave encounters the outer layer of the star, material is fused together creating new elements and radioactive isotopes. The image below shows the remnants of the supernova with the red color denoting the electrons that are combining with protons to form hydrogen and the blue color denoting electrons moving around the magnetic field. At the center of the nebula lies the remnant of the supernova: a pulsar, a rotating neutron star. The Crab Nebula is so energetic that it emits every known type of light, making it a wonder to observe and study.